University of Aberystwyth

Half a million years ago, earlier than was previously thought possible, humans were building structures made of wood, according to new research. Half a million years ago, earlier than was previously thought possible, humans were building structures made of wood, according to new research by a team from the University of Liverpool and Aberystwyth University. The research, published in the journal Nature, reports on the excavation of well-preserved wood at the archaeological site of Kalambo Falls, Zambia, dating back at least 476,000 years and predating the evolution of our own species, Homo sapiens. Expert analysis of stone tool cut-marks on the wood show that these early humans shaped and joined two large logs to make a structure, probably the foundation of a platform or part of a dwelling. This is the earliest evidence from anywhere in the world of the deliberate crafting of logs to fit together. Until now, evidence for the human use of wood was limited to its use for making fire, digging sticks and spears. Wood is rarely found in such ancient sites as it usually rots and disappears, but at Kalambo Falls permanently high water levels preserved the wood. This discovery challenges the prevailing view that Stone Age humans were nomadic. At Kalambo Falls these humans not only had a perennial source of water, but the forest around them provided enough food to enable them to settle and make structures. Professor Larry Barham, from the University of Liverpool's Department of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology, who leads the 'Deep Roots of Humanity' research project said: "This find has changed how I think about our early ancestors. Forget the label 'Stone Age,' look at what these people were doing: they made something new, and large, from wood. They used their intelligence, imagination, and skills to create something they'd never seen before, something that had never previously existed." "They transformed their surroundings to make life easier, even if it was only by making a platform to sit on by the river to do their daily chores. These folks were more like us than we thought." The specialist dating of the finds was undertaken by experts at Aberystwyth University. They used new luminescence dating techniques, which reveal the last time minerals in the sand surrounding the finds were exposed to sunlight, to determine their age. Professor Geoff Duller from Aberystwyth University said: "At this great age, putting a date on finds is very challenging and we used luminescence dating to do this. These new dating methods have far reaching implications -- allowing us to date much further back in time, to piece together sites that give us a glimpse into human evolution. The site at Kalambo Falls had been excavated back in the 1960s when similar pieces of wood were recovered, but they were unable to date them, so the true significance of the site was unclear until now." The site of Kalambo Falls on the Kalambo River lies above a 235 metres (772 foot) waterfall on the border of Zambia with the Rukwa Region of Tanzania at the edge of Lake Tanganyika. The area is on a 'tentative' list from UNESCO for becoming a World Heritage site because of its archaeological significance. Professor Duller added: "Our research proves that this site is much older than previously thought, so its archaeological significance is now even greater. It adds more weight to the argument that it should be a United Nations World Heritage Site." This research forms part of the pioneering 'Deep Roots of Humanity' project, an investigation into how human technology developed in the Stone Age. The project is funded by the UK's Arts and Humanities Research Council and involved teams from Zambia's National Heritage Conservation Commission, Livingstone Museum, Moto Moto Museum and the National Museum, Lusaka. Professor Barham added: "Kalambo Falls is an extraordinary site and a major heritage asset for Zambia. The Deep Roots team is looking forward to more exciting discoveries emerging from its waterlogged sands."

From tongue rolling alpacas to irritable yaks and perturbed pigs, new research has lifted the lid on why some farm and zoo animals cope well with captivity and others display signs of stress. Researchers have published a large-scale study to identify which species of hoofed animals, known as ungulates, are better suited to captive environments and which require better husbandry if kept in captivity. From tongue rolling alpacas to irritable yaks and perturbed pigs, new research has lifted the lid on why some farm and zoo animals cope well with captivity and others display signs of stress. Researchers from Aberystwyth and Portsmouth universities have published the first large-scale study to identify which species of hoofed animals, known as ungulates, are better suited to captive environments and which require better husbandry if kept in captivity. Around the world, over five billion of these large, hoofed animals, such as giraffes, horses, and pigs, are kept as livestock and in zoos and safari parks. This makes them some of the world's most commonly kept animals. Published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society, the study looked at the behaviour of over 15,000 individual animals across 38 ungulate species and found that the type of food species eaten and their mating strategy were linked to the risk of stress symptoms. Specifically, species most at risk from stress-related habits are those that eat high-growing woody vegetation (browsers), such as camels, okapis and rhinos, or are promiscuous, like buffalos, yaks, sheep and pigs. A species' behavioural needs are those they perform to both survive and reproduce in the wild. If these behaviours are restricted by captivity, it can lead to poor welfare and repetitive, unusual behaviours, known as 'stereotypic' behaviours, often seen in farm and zoo animals. This study shows which particular behavioural needs should be prioritised in order to avoid stereotypic behaviours and provide good welfare for ungulates. The academics also concluded that animals in captivity that do not have constant access to food are highly prone to behavioural problems. Study co-author Dr Sebastian McBride from Aberystwyth University said: "Our data suggest that features of both a species' wild behavioural biology and captive husbandry are predictive of these stereotypic behaviours in ungulates. "This research has very important implications for how these large, hoofed animals are kept in captivity -- we now have a better understanding of which species are most susceptible to stress in captivity and how we can tackle this problem to improve the welfare of those animals." Co-author Dr Leanne Proops from the University of Portsmouth said: "This study uses a new method that enables us to better predict how well species that may be rare or understudied will cope in captivity. "We found that for ungulates, having the right food and social organisation is crucial for their welfare. Whereas for carnivores, having enough space in captivity seems to be key. This shows the importance of understanding the specific needs of different groups of species." Study co-author Kate Lewis, from the University of Portsmouth said: "As a society, we need to continue to question and examine the environmental factors that are important to animals if we are to maximise their welfare. There are lessons here for both farmers and zoos about how best to raise and treat livestock."