University of Tabriz

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11571-025-10402-2.

Objective . Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a range of motor and non-motor symptoms. Despite extensive research, the neural structure of time distortion, remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the neurobiological origins of time distortion by analyzing dynamic features in PD patients compared to control participants. Approach . We used PD and control electroencephalography (EEG) signals to investigate brain function during time distortion. The EEG signal was recorded during an interval-timing task. Following artifact reduction and EEG signal segmentation, dynamic features were extracted from each frequency band across all the channels. Channels showing significant discrepancies between the two groups were selected by statistical analysis. The features are sent to an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) classifier to evaluate their discriminative potential. Main results. The results indicated lower values of Lyapunov Exponent and Approximate Entropy along with higher value of Fractal dimension in PD which presented higher level of irregularity and randomness, particularly in the CPz, P5, P6, and C5 channels. The ANN classifier achieved 90% accuracy, 89% sensitivity, 87% F1 score, and 95% specificity in a 10-fold cross-validation. Significance. Significantly different channels were concentrated in the central and parietal areas of the brain and were linked to decision-making, maintenance, and retrieval of stored information, and working memory. Moreover, based on dynamic EEG analysis, it seems that disrupted connections between the basal ganglia and posterior parietal cortex in PD appear to compromise frontoparietal network dysfunction, which is associated with impaired temporal processing in patients with PD.

This study aimed to evaluate the chemical composition, fermentation characteristics, and nutritional value of whole and defatted black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal using the in vitro gas production technique and the Holden method. Samples were prepared and incubated for 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 h. Rumen fluid was collected from three fistulated sheep fed a diet containing 40% concentrate and 60% forage at maintenance level for one month prior to sampling. The results indicated that defatting BSFL increased crude protein content from 38.10% to 42.85% and reduced ether extract from 24.20% to 16.40%. Defatted BSFL produced significantly greater cumulative gas volumes at all incubation times compared with whole larvae. Gas production at 24 h was 81.96 and 79.03 mL per 200 mg of dry matter, and increased to 141.83 and 114.85 mL at 96 h for defatted and whole larvae, respectively. The fractional rate of gas production (c) was slightly higher for whole larvae than for defatted larvae (0.045 vs. 0.030 mL·h⁻¹). Organic matter digestibility (OMD), metabolizable energy (ME), net energy for lactation (NEL), and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production were higher for defatted BSFL compared with whole larvae (91.23% vs. 89.48%, 13.91 vs. 12.61 MJ·kg⁻¹ DM, 10.48 vs. 9.29 MJ·kg⁻¹ DM, and 1.23 vs. 1.21 mmol, respectively). In addition, digestibility values estimated using the Holden method were greater for defatted larvae than for whole larvae (60.90 vs. 55.50%). Overall, the results suggest that defatting black soldier fly larvae enhances their nutritional value and fermentability, indicating their potential as a high-quality feed ingredient for ruminant animals.