Cefixime

Antibiogram use is crucial in the fight against antibiotic resistance in Syria, helping to guide treatment decisions, monitor resistance trends, and implement measures to mitigate this global health threat. This study explores the predictors of antibiogram performance and antibiotic resistance patterns in hospital settings in the Northern Syrian region.

An observational cross-sectional study was performed over six months, from the beginning of September 2022 to February 2023, targeting patients admitted to two hospitals in Syria with susceptibility to infection. The study excluded patients who did not consent or were unwilling to participate, while all individuals admitted due to infectious diseases, regardless of age, sex, or race, were included in the research. Data were collected prospectively, and antimicrobial susceptibility evaluations were performed using the disc diffusion method (the Kirby-Bauer test). Statistical analyses, including the analysis of the results, were conducted utilizing the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois) Version 29.

Of 300 hospitalized patients taking antibiotics, an antibiogram was performed for 200 individuals (cases), while 100 patients (controls) received direct treatment. One-hundred eighty-five cases had a positive culture (69.7% Gram-negative and 30.3% Gram-positive) and subsequently underwent assessment for antibiotic resistance. Cases comprised more females (56.0%) than controls (48.0%), with no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05). Significantly more patients between 25 and 63 were cases (63.8%) than controls (51.0%), while older ages were notably higher among controls (31.7%; p = 0.044), history of cardiovascular diseases was higher among controls (59.0%) than cases (47.0%; p = 0.050). Escherichia coli (N = 60; 30%), Klebsiella (N = 37; 18.5%), and Streptococcus (N = 32; 16%) were the most common bacteria. The study explored antibiotic resistance patterns among identified germs, emphasizing the high sensitivity of all identified germs for broad-spectrum antibiotics, including meropenem, amikacin, gentamicin, and fluoroquinolones (levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin). High resistance (%Sensitivity below 60%) was noted for Sulfamethoxazole, nalidixic acid, amoxiclav, lincomycin cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and cefixime. Specifically, Escherichia coli exhibited robust sensitivity to meropenem (100%), amikacin (93.2%), and ciprofloxacin (92.7%). However, notable resistance was observed against sulfamethoxazole (68.8%), amoxicillin-clavulanate (78.3%), and cefotaxime (88.3%). For Klebsiella, resistance rates were prominent, particularly against sulfamethoxazole (69.4%), amoxicillin (83.8%), and nalidixic acid (100%). Among Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus demonstrated significant resistance to sulfamethoxazole (95.2%) and ceftriaxone (78.3%) while maintaining high sensitivity to meropenem (100%) and vancomycin (100%). Streptococcus exhibited notable resistance against sulfamethoxazole (87.5%) and cefotaxime (90.6%).

The increase in resistance to penicillins, sulfonamides, and cephalosporins, along with continued sensitivity to broad-spectrum antibiotics, including aminoglycosides, carbapenems, and fluoroquinolones, emphasizes the importance of promoting antibiogram use and antibiotic stewardship programs. The limited availability of new antibiotics reinforces the need for urgent efforts to optimize antibiotic use and improve clinical outcomes in Northern Syria.