Testosterone Cypionate

Model projects up to $16.2 million in potential annual savings for every 50,000 veterans transitioned from office-administered injectable therapy — while expanding treatment choiceRALEIGH, N.C., July 28, 2026 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- As federal leaders place greater emphasis on identifying and addressing testosterone deficiency across America’s military community, Marius Pharmaceuticals today announced findings from a new pharmacoeconomic analysis identifying a potential path to expand treatment choice for veterans while reducing costs to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). The analysis found that KYZATREX® (testosterone undecanoate) capsules, CIII, could reduce modeled total monthly treatment costs by up to approximately 46% compared with office-administered injectable testosterone. Applied to a modeled population of 50,000 veterans receiving office-administered testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), the analysis projects potential net annual savings to the VA of approximately $16.2 million. “Federal leaders are bringing long-overdue attention to testosterone health and its potential impact on the well-being of those who serve and have served our country,” said Shalin Shah, CEO of Marius Pharmaceuticals. “As that conversation advances, we must ensure that clinically appropriate treatment is not only accessible, but economically sustainable. This analysis suggests KYZATREX could give eligible veterans a convenient oral treatment option while helping the VA use its resources more efficiently — demonstrating that meaningful pharmaceutical innovation does not have to come at a premium.” The Sticker Price Is Not the Real Price Generic injectable testosterone is often perceived as the least expensive TRT option based on drug-acquisition cost alone. The Marius analysis evaluated the fuller cost of office-administered injectable therapy — drug acquisition, injection-administration visits, prescription dispensing and the management of injection-site adverse events — and found that the medication itself is the smallest part of the bill. Under the base-case model, drug acquisition accounted for just $11.22 of injectable therapy’s modeled monthly cost per patient. Injection-administration visits and prescription dispensing added $61.38 per month, and injection-site adverse events added a modeled $24.38 per applicable patient per month. In other words, nearly 90% of the modeled monthly cost of office-administered injectable testosterone stems from how the drug is delivered and managed — not the drug itself. Because KYZATREX is taken orally, it eliminates injection-administration visits entirely and carries no modeled injection-site adverse-event costs — producing the modeled reduction of approximately 46% in total monthly cost of care per patient. When applied to a modeled population of 50,000 veterans receiving office-administered injectable TRT — with injection-site adverse-event costs applied to an estimated 30% of those patients — the analysis projects potential net annual savings of approximately $16.2 million. Because the real-world population of veterans receiving TRT is substantially larger than the modeled population, the broader savings opportunity could be significantly greater, depending on the number of clinically appropriate patients transitioned from office-administered injectable therapy to KYZATREX. The findings suggest that evaluating only the acquisition price of testosterone medication overlooks the substantial costs of administering and managing treatment — and demonstrate the value of a total-cost-of-care lens when evaluating treatment options for veterans. Challenging the Cost Premium of Oral Testosterone The analysis also compared VA drug-acquisition costs for the three FDA-approved oral testosterone undecanoate products, using Federal Supply Schedule pricing and each product’s labeled starting dose. On that basis, KYZATREX’s modeled annual drug-acquisition cost was approximately 95% lower than JATENZO® and approximately 92% lower than TLANDO®: JATENZO’s modeled annual acquisition cost was approximately 20 times that of KYZATREX.TLANDO’s modeled annual acquisition cost was approximately 13 times that of KYZATREX. Testosterone undecanoate products are not substitutable and may differ in dosing, safety, efficacy and other clinical considerations. Treatment and formulary decisions should be based on FDA-approved prescribing information, individual patient needs and independent clinical judgment. “As awareness and screening increase, the next critical question is how to ensure that veterans who are appropriately diagnosed can access treatment without creating an unnecessary financial burden on the federal healthcare system or American taxpayers,” Shah added. “Marius is committed to working toward a future in which affordability, innovation and patient choice are not competing priorities.” Supporting Sustainable Access for Veterans KYZATREX is an FDA-approved oral testosterone replacement therapy that is used to treat adult men who have low or no testosterone levels due to certain medical conditions. As an oral treatment, KYZATREX eliminates the need for injections and the administration visits associated with office-based injectable therapy. The analysis is intended to support continued discussion among policymakers, clinicians, formulary decision-makers and veterans’ health advocates about how to expand access to clinically appropriate testosterone care in an economically responsible manner. Complete modeling inputs and methodology are available to qualified formulary decision-makers and policymakers upon request. Diagnosis of hypogonadism should be confirmed by measuring morning serum testosterone concentrations on at least two separate days. Treatment decisions should be made by qualified healthcare professionals based on each patient’s diagnosis, medical history, clinical needs and the approved prescribing information for the selected therapy. About the Pharmacoeconomic Analysis The analysis compared the modeled costs of KYZATREX with testosterone cypionate administered intramuscularly every two weeks in an office setting. Cost inputs included VA Federal Supply Schedule drug pricing, a resource-based cost proxy for injection administration, VA prescription-dispensing costs and modeled costs associated with injection-site adverse events. The potential $16.2 million annual savings estimate assumes 50,000 veterans receiving office-administered injectable TRT. Actual savings would vary based on the number of eligible veterans, the proportion of patients who self-inject at home, local costs, dosing and the incidence of injection-site adverse events. The analysis excludes laboratory and clinical monitoring common to all testosterone formulations and models treatment at steady state. Acquisition costs evaluated in the analysis do not necessarily reflect the actual prices paid by consumers, pharmacies or third-party payers. The report recommends using local data from individual VA medical centers or Veterans Integrated Service Networks to assess potential annual savings accurately. VA pharmaceutical prices used in the analysis were obtained from the VA National Acquisition Center Pharmaceutical Catalog, accessed in June 2026. Dosing calculations were based on the FDA-approved prescribing information for each product. About Marius Pharmaceuticals Marius Pharmaceuticals strives to better the lives of patients by focusing on therapies designed for hypogonadism or Testosterone Deficiency. The company's vision is to holistically improve metabolic health and mitigate significant unnecessary costs to the global healthcare system. For more information, please visit www.mariuspharma.com. About KYZATREX® (testosterone undecanoate)KYZATREX is a proprietary softgel oral formulation absorbed primarily via the lymphatic system (meaning it is not toxic to the liver) and indicated in adult males for conditions associated with a deficiency or absence of endogenous testosterone. The safety and efficacy of KYZATREX was demonstrated in a phase 3, multi-center, open-label, six-month study in 155 hypogonadal males between 18 and 65 years of age with documented hypogonadism, as defined by a below normal serum testosterone level (≤281 ng/dL) and at least one sign or symptom of testosterone deficiency. In the efficacy population (n=139), 88 percent of hypogonadal men treated with KYZATREX achieved a mean plasma total testosterone concentration (Cavg) over 24 hours within the normal range (222-800 ng/dL) on the final pharmacokinetic (PK) visit of the study at Day 90 (primary endpoint). Based on exploratory endpoints, patients who received KYZATREX reported improvements in symptoms of low testosterone, including quality of life, energy/fatigue, erectile function, sexual intercourse, and mood. The most common side effect reported in ≥2 percent of KYZATREX patients was increased blood pressure (2.6%). The safety and efficacy of KYZATREX in males less than 18 years old have not been established. Please see additional Important Safety Information for KYZATREX below or visit www.kyzatrex.com. What is KYZATREX®KYZATREX® (testosterone undecanoate) is a prescription drug that is used to treat adult men who have low or no testosterone levels due to certain medical conditions. KYZATREX® is a controlled substance (CIII) because it contains testosterone. It is not known if KYZATREX® is safe or effective in males younger than 18 years old. Improper use may affect bone growth in children. It is not known if KYZATREX® is safe or effective in men with “age-related hypogonadism” (also referred to as “late-onset hypogonadism”). KYZATREX® is not meant for use by women. Important Safety Information for KYZATREX® Do not take KYZATREX® if you: have breast cancer; have or might have prostate cancer; are a woman who is pregnant (KYZATREX may harm your unborn baby); or are allergic to KYZATREX® or any of its ingredients. Before you take KYZATREX®, tell your healthcare provider about all of your medical conditions, including if you: have high blood pressure or are treated for high blood pressure; have a history of diabetes; have heart problems; have high red blood cell count (hematocrit) or high hemoglobin laboratory value; have urinary problems due to an enlarged prostate; have liver or kidney problems; or have problems breathing while you sleep (sleep apnea). Tell your healthcare provider about all the medicines you take, including prescription and over-the-counter medicines, vitamins, and herbal supplements. Taking KYZATREX® with certain other medicines can affect each other. Especially, tell your healthcare provider if you take: insulin; medicines that decrease blood clotting (blood thinners); corticosteroids; or medicines that increase blood pressure, such as some cold medicine and pain medicines. KYZATREX® may cause other serious side effects including: Increase in red blood cell count (hematocrit) or hemoglobin, which can increase the risk of blood clots, strokes, and heart attacks. You may need to stop KYZATREX® if your red blood cell count increases.If you already have an enlarged prostate, your signs and symptoms may worsen while taking KYZATREX®. These may include: increased urination at night; trouble starting your urine stream; urinating many times during the day; urge to go to the bathroom right away; a urine accident; inability to pass urine or weak urine flow.Increased risk of prostate cancer.Blood clots in the legs or lungs. Signs and symptoms of a blood clot in your leg can include pain, swelling or redness. Signs and symptoms of a blood clot in your lungs can include difficulty breathing or chest pain.Abuse. Testosterone can be abused when taken at higher than prescribed doses and when used with other anabolic androgenic steroids. Abuse can cause serious heart and psychological side effects.In large doses, KYZATREX® may lower your sperm count.Liver problems. Symptoms of liver problems may include: nausea or vomiting; yellowing of your skin or whites of your eyes; dark urine; pain on the right side of your stomach area (abdominal pain).Swelling of your ankles, feet, or body (edema), with or without heart failure.Enlarged or painful breasts.Breathing problems while you sleep (sleep apnea). Call your healthcare provider right away if you have any of the serious side effects listed above. The most common side effect of KYZATREX® is high blood pressure. Other side effects may include: headache, joint or back pain, diarrhea, increased red blood cell count, anxiety, constipation, swelling of the legs, and increased prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. These are not all the possible side effects of KYZATREX®. For more information, ask your healthcare provider or pharmacist. You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit www.fda.gov/medwatch or call 1-800-FDA-1088. You may also report side effects to Marius [by visiting www.mariuspharma.com]. Keep KYZATREX and all medicines out of the reach of children. See Full Prescribing Information and Medication Guide for KYZATREX®. Media Contact:Lilly Washburnlilly@mariuspharma.com

小提示：正文字数7882，预计阅读需25分钟题记上海有机化学研究所马大为课题组发展了促进Ullmann反应的氨基酸和草酰二胺两代配体，突破了反应条件苛刻和普适性差的局限，该反应已广泛应用于新药研发和新材料创制，应用超过1500次，其中包括两个临床实验药物的百公斤级生产，以及抗高血压药物培朵普利和治疗干眼病药物Xiidra的吨级生产，700余项美国专利利用这一改进的Ullmann反应设计了合成路线。马大为研究员也因为在这一有机化学领域的卓越贡献，荣获美国化学会2018年Arthur C. Cope学者奖，并被授予2019年度中国科学院杰出科技成就奖。览博网与该课题组合作推出相关乌尔曼反应高效草酰二胺配体，这类配体最显著的特点：（1）突破了此前铜催化的不活泼的芳基氯代物的偶联反应局限；（2）对于较活泼的芳基碘代物和溴代物，可以使得反应在低催化剂量和更为温和的反应条件下进行。下面将简要介绍相关配体的研究进展。​背景介绍1901年，F.Ullmann报道了高温下（> 200°C）两当量芳基卤与一当量细铜粉的反应，得到对称的联芳烃和卤化铜。两种芳基卤化物在铜的存在产生对称或不对称的联芳烃，称为乌尔曼反应（乌尔曼联芳烃合成或乌尔曼偶联）。自此发现以来，乌尔曼反应已成为合成众多对称和不对称联芳烃的经典方法。典型的Ullmann反应一般需要剧烈的条件，反应温度高于200℃），过量的Cu粉催化。伴随着金属有机化学的发展，Ullmann反应的适用范围得到了扩展。比如，除了最常用的碘代芳烃，溴代芳烃和氯代芳烃也可用于反应。催化剂除了Cu外，Ni催化的偶联反应也有报道，在药物研发和药物生产过程中经常用到。图1 早期典型的乌尔曼反应 马大为课题组有关乌尔曼反应研究进展如上所述，在经典的乌尔曼反应中，反应温度需要达到150℃到250℃，铜催化剂的效率很低，使得这一反应的实用性受到限制。1998年，上海有机所的马大为课题组在合成其他分子过程中，偶然发现了一类氨基酸分子，可以提高乌尔曼反应的效率。接下来发展了一系列基于这个催化体系的反应，他们用了整整10年时间，终于找到了比这类氨基酸分子的催化效率更高的草酰二胺分子。这个新催化体系可以催化更广谱的反应，更有可能用来制备生物活性分子和材料分子，并且可以在新药研发中发挥重要作用。经改良后的乌尔曼反应，在室温到100℃之间即可发生，从而使得一个不怎么好用的“工具”变成了“利器”。如果把催化剂比作一台挖掘机，催化剂中的金属相当于钻头，它的配体就是助推器，可以说马大为课题组找到了乌尔曼反应目前推力最大的助推器，而且钻头用的是很便宜的金属铜。因此可以在医药和材料合成领域得到广泛应用。1.  N,N‘-二（2,4,6-三甲氧基苯基）草酰二胺（BTMPO）作为铜催化不活泼的芳基氯化物与烷基胺类偶联反应的最佳配体[1]芳基胺是学术界和工业界最重要的化学品之一。该种基本骨架在具有生物活性的天然产物和药物等人工化合物中非常常见。在现有的制备芳基胺的方法中，（杂）芳基卤化物与胺的金属催化偶联反应变得越来越有吸引力。虽然在过去的二十年中，大量的Pd和Cu基催化体系被开发用于胺的芳基化，但因为胺与过渡金属具有很强的配位亲和力，如何实现高转化率成为化学家们一项严峻的挑战。2015年课题组发现草酸二胺是有效的配体，能够与铜在相对温和的条件下催化活性较低(杂)芳基氯化物的胺化反应。经过筛选多种草酸二胺，发现BTMPO是该反应的最佳配体，最佳的反应条件为：以磷酸钾为碱，在120℃条件下进行，在DMSO中生成多种(杂)芳基胺，大多数产率可达到70%以上。并且大量的官能化(杂)芳基氯化物和胺符合目前的反应条件，从而可以合成具有多种结构特征的(杂)芳基胺。详细催化反应结果如下图所示。此研究的重要意义在于，草酸二胺配体非常便宜、方便、结构可调。这些显著的特点使该方法成为制备(杂)芳基胺的一种很有吸引力的方法。这一发现促进了后面一系列的铜催化的芳基化反应的配体设计。图2 CuI/BTMPO催化(杂)芳基氯化物与胺的偶联反应的范围2. N,N‘-二（2-苯基-4-甲基苯基）草酰二胺（BPMPO）作为铜催化不活泼的芳基氯化物与氨偶联反应的最佳配体[2]初级(杂)芳基胺是有机化学中最重要的原料之一，广泛应用于制药、农药、染料和电子材料的生产。到目前为止，每年生产的初级(杂)芳基胺超过600万吨，最常用的制备方法是先硝化芳烃，然后加氢，由于大量使用过量的混合硝酸和硫酸产生了严重的污染物，已经造成了严重的环境问题。为解决这一问题，马大为课题组在2015年筛选多种草酸二胺，发现BPMPO是该反应的最佳配体，在CuI催化下芳基氯化物与水或气态氨发生偶联反应。反应在105-120℃下进行，生成了一系列不同官能团的初级(杂)芳基胺。大多数产率可达到70%以上。这种方法是现有的从杂芳基氯化物中合成初级(杂)芳基胺的许多方法的有益补充，而且在许多情况下，该反应在成本(催化剂、配体和碱)、底物适用范围和反应条件方面具有明显的优势。详细催化反应结果如下图所示。图3 CuI/BPMPO催化(杂)芳基氯化物与胺的偶联反应的范围3. N-（1-萘基）-N’-烷基类草酰二胺（MNBO）作为铜催化芳基卤化物与胺类反应的最佳配体[3]2017年，马大为课题组筛选了一系列草酸二酰胺配体后，研究证明MNBO可作为有效配体，使芳基溴与伯胺和氨的偶联反应仅用0.1mol%的Cu2O催化剂和配体即可完成，且反应底物适用范围广泛，无论是各类（杂）芳基卤化物（I，Br）还是各种胺类在该条件下均能表现出良好的反应活性。1)  MNBO-Cu2O作为最佳反应配体催化（杂）芳基卤化物与伯胺的偶联反应研究者首先进行了以4-溴茴香醚和苄胺为底物，以0.1mol%的Cu2O和0.1mol%的配体催化下发生的偶联反应的探索。最初，使用BTMPO（L1）作为配体，该配体是铜催化芳基氯化物与伯胺偶联的最佳配体。在80°C的叔丁醇中，6h后的转化率仅为1%。通过使用BPMPO（L2）观察到类似的结果，但该配体在铜催化的芳基氯和氨的偶联反应中表现良好（entry2）。因此，初步探索失败后，研究人员选择修改配体来进行反应最佳配体的探索，使用N-芳基-N’-烷基取代的草酰胺（L3）作为配体，反应获得了显著的改善（entry3）。基于L3的进一步的结构-活性关系研究表明，MNBO（L4）的反应结果最好（entry4）。在这种情况下，将反应时间延长到12h底物得到了几乎完全转换（entry5）。将L4中的苄基改为2-呋喃甲基（MNFO，L5）对收率并没有产生影响（entry6）。然而，当L4中的苄基和2-甲基-1-萘基基团被替换成到2-甲基-1-萘基（L6，entry7）和1-萘基（L7，entry8）时，反应产率明显下降。当使用L5的简化类似物L8（NFO）时，也得到了类似的结果（entry9）。此外，将溶剂改为乙醇并不影响转化（entry8）。图4 最佳配体MNBO的探索然后用各种（杂）芳基溴和伯胺对所建立的最佳反应条件进行了探索，几种取代芳基溴已证明可以75-98%的收率转化为最终产物。如下图所示。图5 MNBO作为催化反应配体的底物适用性当底物为更具反应活性的（杂）芳基碘时，发现0.01mol%的Cu2O和MNBO足以催化芳基胺化。在50°C时，乙醇溶液中反应迅速，偶联产物的产率为88-95%。由下图可知，该改进的乌尔曼偶联反应底物使用广泛，反应活性良好，转化充分，且所需催化剂及配体的用量更加经济合理。图6 MNBO配体在活性更高的芳基卤化物底物中的应用2) N-(1-萘基)-N-(2-呋喃甲基)-草二酰胺(MNFO)/NFO作为芳基卤化物与氨偶联的最佳配体 研究者进一步探索了该方法在芳基卤化物与氨偶联合成初级芳胺的适用性，在0.1mol%的Cu2O和MNFO（或NFO）催化下，氨水可与富电子或缺电子的芳基卤化物反应产生相应的胺化产物。反应结果如下图所示，所有芳基碘的偶联氨化都是在比相应的溴化物更低的温度下进行。且反应条件温和，普遍产率达到60%以上，可适用的底物广泛。图7 MNFO/NFO作为芳基卤化物与氨偶联配体的底物适用性3) MNBO作为饱和氮杂环与芳基卤化物偶联的最佳配体N-芳基饱和氮杂环骨架在药物发现中具有重要意义。在此背景下，使用的新的催化体系来尝试杂芳基卤化物与饱和氮杂环的偶联反应。发现Cu2O和MNBO的结合对胺偶联底物的空间位阻很敏感，因此需要增加催化浓度才能完全转化。一般来说，0.1~0.5mol%的Cu2O和MNBO能有效地催化（杂）芳基溴与简单饱和氮杂环的偶联。图8 MNBO作为环仲胺与芳基卤化物偶联配体的底物适用性4. N, -双[(2-呋喃基)甲基]草酸酰胺(BFMO) 作为Cu2O催化氮杂环的N-芳基化的高效配体[4] BFMO是一种由廉价的呋喃基胺和草酸氯合成的酰胺。Cu2O与BFMO的结合适用于催化10多种不同类型氮杂环与芳基卤化物发生偶合反应生成N-芳基化产物，这些氮杂环包括吡啶类、吲哚类、吡咯类等，在标准条件下，两种底物在低催化浓度(1-2 mol%的催化剂和配体)下表现良好，偶联产物的收率普遍在85%以上。该反应具有底物范围广、配体制备成本低、操作简单、多克级合成能力强等特点。催化反应结果见下表。图9 Cu2O催化4-溴茴香醚与吲哚在不同配体作用下的偶联反应图10 Cu2O/ BFMO催化的(杂)芳基溴代物与氮杂环的偶联反应5. N,N’ -双[(2-噻吩基)甲基]草酸酰胺(BTMO) 作为Cu2O催化氮杂环的N-芳基化的高效配体[5]Cu2O/BTMO是一种与次等反应活性(杂)芳基氯化物进行Goldberg 酰胺化反应的有效催化剂体系，目前–铜催化还没有有效的文献报道。该反应对各种官能化(杂)芳基氯化物和各种芳香族和脂肪族初级酰胺都适用，产率可达70%以上。此外，该催化体系还实现了内酰胺和恶唑烷酮的芳基化反应。图11 Cu2O/BTMO催化(杂)芳基氯化物与酰胺的偶联反应6. BFMO及N,N -双(2,4,6-三甲氧基苯基)草酰胺(BTMPO) 增强了(杂)芳基溴代物与苯胺和仲胺的铜催化偶联的催化活性[6]BFMO是一种价格低廉、使用方便的双齿配体，对于促进铜催化的苯胺和环仲胺的N-芳基化反应非常有效。该方法能够在60-80℃的温度下，在0.5 mol %的催化剂浓度中，使多种(杂)芳基溴代化合物与各种(杂)芳基胺和环仲胺发生偶联（如下图）。图12  CuI/ BFMO催化(杂)芳基溴代物与(杂)芳基氨基的偶联以N,N‘-双(2,4,6-三甲氧基苯基)草酸酰胺(BTMPO)为配体，催化(杂)芳基溴代物与空间位阻较大的无环仲胺偶联，收率达到80%以上，催化剂用量为1mol%CuI和1 mol%BTMPO。实验结果如下图所示。图13 CuI/ BTMPO催化(杂)芳基溴代物与无环仲胺的偶联7. N,N’-双(4-羟基-2,6-二甲基苯基)草酰胺(BHMPO)作为Cu(acac)2催化(杂)芳基卤化物的羟基化反应的最佳配体[7]根据课题组之前的研究，通过筛选各种草酰二胺配体，确认N,N‘ -双(4-羟基-2,6-二甲基苯基)草酸酰胺(BHMPO) 作为Cu(acac)2催化（杂）芳基卤化物的羟基化反应的最佳配体。在130℃时，许多带有供电子基团或吸电子基团的（杂）芳基氯化物都能很好地生成相应的酚类和羟基化的（杂）芳烃，催化结果如下图所示。图14 BHMPO作为配体参与铜催化(杂)芳基氯化物的羟基化反应当反应活性更强的（杂）芳基溴代物和碘代物作为底物时，在较低的催化浓度(0.5 mol % Cu)下，羟基化反应在相对较低的温度(分别为80和60 ℃)下完成，催化结果如下图所示。图15 BHMPO作为配体参与铜催化(杂)芳基溴化物（上）和(杂)芳基碘化物（下）的羟基化反应值得注意的是，在这些放大实验中可以进一步减少催化剂的浓度，缩短反应时间。例如,1 - (3-氯苯)-苯乙酮的羟基化反应在20 mmol量级，更易在24小时完成，而使用的催化剂和配体只有2mol%，而3-溴-1-碘苯在20 mmol量级的完全羟基化反应只需12小时。这些额外的优点使目前的方法对于大批量生产酚类更有吸引力。图16 放大羟化反应8.  N1 -((1,1’联苯)-N2-苯乙基乙二酰胺 2-yl)（L9）为CuI催化(杂)芳基氯化物与酚类偶联的最佳配体[8]经过筛选不同催化配体和优化偶联反应条件，课题组发现草酰二胺分子L9可作为CuI催化(杂)芳基氯化物与酚类偶联的最佳配体，反应可在120℃下顺利进行。在这一过程中，L9是比双(烯丙基)取代的草酸酰胺更有效的配体。富电子芳基、贫电子芳基和(杂)芳基氯化物在一定范围内均能得到相应的偶联产物。富电子酚和有限范围内的贫电子酚作为底物均可获得满意的转化率。低至1.5 mol%的催化剂和配体浓度足以使这些反应进行放大工艺合成。图17 L9作为配体参与铜催化(杂)芳基氯化物与酚类的偶联反应9. N,N’-双(2-苯基苯基)草酸(BPPO)或N-(2-苯基苯基)-N -苄基草酸(PPBO)作为CuI催化酚类和(杂)芳基卤化物偶联形成二芳基的高效配体[9]在研究L9配体参与的酚类和(杂)芳基卤化物偶联反应后，课题组继续的研究发现以DMF或MeCN为溶剂，在CuI/ BPPO或CuI/ PPBO的催化下，在90℃的温度下，酚和(杂)芳基溴化物或碘化物偶联形成二芳基的完全转化最低只需要0.2 mol %的CuI和配体，这是一般Cu/配体催化生成二芳基醚的最低催化浓度，催化反应结果如下。图18 CuI/ BPPO（上）或CuI/ PPBO（下）的催化下酚和(杂)芳基卤化物偶联形成二芳基10.  N, N’-二苄氧乙二酰胺（DBO）作为铜催化杂芳基卤化物与杂苯胺类偶联的最佳配体[10]图19 FDA批准的含氮杂芳基异苯胺骨架结构的药物分子氮杂苯胺是一种多用途的药物骨架，特别是在分子激酶抑制剂（SMKIs）中应用尤其广泛。自2001年伊马替尼经FDA批准应用于慢性粒细胞白血病（CML）和胃肠道间质瘤（GIST）的靶向治疗，选择性激酶抑制剂的开发已成为工业界和学术界研究的热点。因此，开发简单高效的N-杂环药物的合成方法具有重要意义。马大为课题组证明DBO作为一种强有力的配体，可促进杂芳环胺与（杂）芳基卤化物的Cu催化偶联。对于（杂）芳基氯化物，反应温度在130°C下，用5mol%CuBr和10mol%DBO即可催化发生的反应。对于（杂）芳基溴/碘化物，在80-100°C下，1mol%CuI和2mol%DBO催化可发生偶联反应。反应底物适用性广泛且均能取得良好的收率。以嘧啶-2-胺与4-氯茴香醚为底物，研究了不同的草酸二酰胺配体对于这类催化偶联反应中的影响。如下图所示，初步使用BTMO（L1）作为铜催化酰化芳基氯化物的配体， T-BuONA和4A分子筛（entry1）作为助催化剂， 反应温度为120°C，以18%的收率生成偶联产物3a。这一反应收率在使用PMPBO(L2)和BMNO (L3)相继作为铜催化反应的配体时得到持续改善。此后，研究人员改变铜盐（entry4-7）以期进一步提高反应收率，结果并不理想，研究回归到催化配体的筛选，令人惊讶地发现， DPEO（L4）作为配体时催化反应的产率较低（entry8）。但当DBO（L5）作为配体（entry9）时，收率较高。该现象进一步表明，草酸二胺的结构细微变化会极大地影响它们的催化能力。以DBO为配体，如果在130°C下进行反应（entry11），反应产率可提高到86%，但如果使用BNMO，反应温度从120℃升高到130℃收率则不会发生变化（比较entry3和10）。在相同的条件下，N、N’-二甲基乙二胺（L6）和1,10-菲啉（L7）两种以前用于杂苯胺芳基化的配体在该反应中则没有发生催化反应（entry12、13）。这些结果表明，以草酸二酰胺为配体是杂苯胺与芳基氯化物成功偶联的关键。进一步的研究显示，用t-BuONa替换t-BuOK的溶液环境得到了类似的结果（entry14）。有趣的是，降低CuBr和配体的催化负载量，反应产率会有所下降（entry15），而如果只降低CuBr的催化浓度（entry16），则观察到产率增加。综上所述，反应的最佳条件是以5mol%CuBr为催化剂，10mol%DBO为配体，t-Buona为碱，在130°C进行反应。图20 最佳反应条件及DBO配体的探索建立最佳反应条件后，研究人员用各种杂苯胺和（杂）芳基氯化物对该反应的适用性进行探索，结果下图所示。图21 反应底物适用性探索如图21所示，可知2-氨基嘧啶与富电子基或吸电子基团的（杂）芳基氯化物的反应可以69%~84%的产率顺利得到偶联产物。通过将相应的苯胺与三种芳基氯化物（3f-3h）偶联，可以很容易地引入存在于伊马替尼和尼洛替尼中的4-(吡啶-3-基)嘧啶-2-氨基骨架。此外，3,5-二甲基-2-氨基嘧啶也能很好地进行反应，使得3i的产率达到81%。此外，4-氨基喹唑啉（3j-k）、2-氨基吡嗪（3l）、2-氨基喹唑啉（3m）等其他杂芳环胺也能够很好的发生反应。当使用活性更大的芳基溴/碘代物作为偶联底物时，研究发现以CuI为铜源，DBO为配体，T-BuOK为碱是反应的最佳组合。在这种情况下，只需要1mol%CuI和2mol%DBO就可以确保在100°C（溴化物）或80°C（碘化物）下完成偶联反应。该项研究证明了一种非常简单的配体，N,N‘-二苄氧乙二酰胺，可以促进具有挑战性的铜催化C-N异族苯胺与（杂）芳基卤化物的偶联。新的催化体系不仅可以与活性较低的（杂）芳基氯化物的偶联，而且与（杂）芳基溴化物/碘的偶联反应条件更加温和（相对较低的催化负载量，反应温度较低）。鉴于N-芳基杂苯胺在药物研发中的重要性，该合成方法在有机合成中有相当广阔的应用前景。11. BNMO/DEPO作为铜催化芳基卤化物与醇偶联的最佳配体[11]烷基芳基醚是众多天然产物和具有各种重要功能的分子砌块中常见的结构。特别是，它们在药物分子中非常常见，并且在畅销药物的结构中屡见不鲜，如下图所示。图22 含有烷基芳基醚结构的畅销药物因此，更通用和反应条件温和的烷基芳基醚合成方法的发展引起了学术界和工业界的持续关注。在过去的二十年中，过渡金属催化的易得的卤代芳烃与醇的碳氧偶联反应是对已有醚合成方法的有益补充。然而，钯和膦配体的成本问题以及相关催化体系的稳定性差限制了其反应的适用性；同样的，镍和膦配体催化反应受制于使用昂贵的膦配体和对富含电子的芳基溴化物和氯化物具有惰性。相比于Pd 和 Ni的催化偶联反应，铜催化的芳基卤化物与醇的反应在经济性和操作便利性方面是更有吸引力的方法，虽然与 Pd 和 Ni 相比更容易发生还原消除副反应，但其底物范围仅限于芳基碘化物。当空间张力大或无环的仲醇与芳基碘化物偶联时，需要苛刻的反应条件 (140℃) 和与底物等当量的配体才能以良好的产率获得理想的偶联产物。对于芳基溴化物，使用纯醇作为溶剂和底物，高温（超过 110℃）对于确保令人满意的转化率是必要的。即使在这些条件下，很少有仲醇能发生偶联反应。此外，迄今为止，还没有采用相对廉价的芳基氯化物的成功例子的报道。图23  改进后的碳氧偶联反应1) 草酸二酰胺配体DPEO和BNMO的辅助下，Cu催化的未活化芳基氯化物和溴化物的烷氧基化反应马大为课题组接下来系统地研究了一些新的草酸二酰胺配体（如下图所示），它们在促进Cu催化的其他亲核分子的芳基化反应方面表现出优异的催化活性。在两种简单的草酸二酰胺配体DPEO和BNMO的辅助下，Cu催化的未活化芳基氯化物和溴化物的烷氧基化反应可在60-100℃下进行。只需要2-3个当量的醇类与之反应便可得到相应的烷基芳基醚。该研究中，叔丁醇首次被证明是铜催化的偶联反应的配体，在室温下参与催化芳基碘化物的烷氧基化反应。此外，许多碳水化合物衍生物可用于这种偶联反应，以29-98%的收率合成了相应的碳水化合物-芳醚。图24 筛选的配体种类图25 反应的底物适用性2) 改进后的乌尔曼反应在药物合成方面的应用如上左图所示，与相应的芳基溴联用，可在多克的合成量级制备3ai (pramoxine)和3aj。前者是一种传统的局麻药，后者是制造治疗耐多药结核病药物delamanid的常用原料。原有制备3aj的方法是利用Mistunobu反应，这一反应因为使用偶氮二羧酸酯和膦试剂会产生大量的废料。上述改良后的碳氧偶联方法，也适用于抗抑郁剂度洛西汀的关键中间体3ak的合成。多氟烷基芳醚3al是合成血清素6 (5- HT6)受体拮抗剂依达罗定的中间体，该药物目前正处于阿尔茨海默病治疗的III期临床试验。此前，该化合物是通过威廉姆森醚合成得到的，原有工艺中需要用对三酰氯对CHF2CF2CH2OH进行预活化。在该项研究中，直接溴代芳烃可以与CHF2CF2CH2OH直接偶联，以高收率89%得到3al。也可与CF3CH2OH偶联得到另一种氟化烷基芳醚3am，该分子可能是制备抗心律失常药氟卡胺的中间体，偶联反应收率为89%。 注：图片来源于参考文献参考文献：[1] J. 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